Enzymatic treatment is a valuable technique with promising results compared to fermentation as there are numerous enzymatic products commercially available at reasonable prices such as some papain, protamex TM, protease, neutral protease, cellulose, hemicellulose, or pectinase that allow the breaking of bee pollen wall down. Various articles refer to fermentation using bacteria for exine dissolution such as lactic acid bacteria, Apilactobacillus kunkeei strains, and Hanseniaspora uvarum. They are efficiently utilized and a lot more affordable than previous techniques. Finally, biotechnology processes produce remarkable results fermentation and enzymatic hydrolysis were the most examined techniques. The use of ultrasonic technology can effectively disrupt bee pollen walls by breaking the exine and intine layers of bee pollen into tiny fragments, enabling nutrients to flow freely. Pressure, temperature, and CO 2 flow rate all have a major impact on the yield output of lysed oil. The supercritical carbon dioxide (CO 2) technique was used to extract essential oil from bee pollen using a supercritical CO 2 system at pressures of 13.2–46.8 MPa, temperatures of 33.2–66.8 ☌, and CO 2 flow rates of 6.6–23.4 L/h. Physical treatment with ultrasound and supercritical fluids was successful, but these methods are highly challenging in terms of time, cost, and effort. On the other hand, it caused nutritional loss. Mechanical methods were effective as the exine was broken via the action of shear forces generating heat i.e., the technique of High-speed Shear Dispersing Emulsifier (HSDE), the action of shear force which generate a large amount of heat, resulting in the loss of heat-sensitive nutrients. Chemical treatment is one of the earliest techniques were used to destroy the exine layer where the grains are subjected to monoethanolamine for three hours at 97 ☌ to destroy the exine layer, but this approach is unacceptable when bee pollen is used in food supplements. Many methods were tested to enhance bee pollen’s nutritional quality and consumption. Īlthough bee pollen contains a large amount of metabolites, previous studies indicate a limited utilization of the bee pollen ingredients due to the presence of a robust outer shell layer called exine. Phenolic compounds represent an average of 1.6% of pollen content, including leukotrienes, catechins, phenolic acids (e.g., chlorogenic acid), and flavonoids (e.g., kaempferol, isorhamnetin, and quercetin). About 5.1% of lipids are found in bee pollen as essential fatty acids like archaic, linoleic, and γ-linoleic acids, phospholipids, and phytosterols (in particular β-sitosterol). As a source of energy, carbohydrates exist in bee pollen at 30.8%, containing reducing sugars like glucose and fructose. Nucleic acids, particularly ribonucleic acid, are present in considerable amounts. And for their vital engagement in gene expression, cell signaling pathways, digestion, and nutrient absorption, they must be included in the diet. These amino acids are not synthesized in our bodies, but they play an important role in optimal growth and health. The mean percent of protein in pollen is 22.7%, including vital amino acids such as tryptophan, phenylalanine, methionine, leucine, lysine, threonine, histidine, isoleucine, and valine. Bee pollen metabolites including proteins, amino acids, enzymes, co-enzymes, carbohydrates, lipids, fatty acids, phenolic compounds, bio-elements, and vitamins ( Figure 2 and Figure 3).
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